Contents // 1 Origins and overview 1 // 2 Test specifications 9 // 3 Item writing and moderation 40 // 4 Pretesting and analysis 73 // 5 The training of examiners and administrators 105 // 6 Monitoring examiner reliability 128 // 7 Reporting scores and setting pass marks 148 // 8 Validation 170 // 9 Post-test reports 197 // 10 Developing and improving tests 218 // 11 Standards in language testing: // the state of the art 235 // Appendices 261 // Glossary 286 // Abbreviations and acronyms 297 // Bibliography 299 // Index 305