.

0 (hodnocen0 x )

BK

4th ed.

Philadelphia : W.B. Saunders Company, 2001

xx,840 s. : il.

ISBN 0-7216-9177-3 (váz.)

Obsahuje tabulky, bibliografické citace, resumé, předmluvu, dodatky, glosář, rejstřík

Ošetřovatelství - výzkumy - metodologie - učebnice vysokošk.

Výzkumy - ošetřovatelství - metodologie - učebnice vysokošk.

000081752

INTRODUCTION TO NURSING // Research 1 // Discovery of the World of Nursing Research 3 // Definition of Nursing Research 3 // Significance of Nursing Research 4 Description 4 Explanation 4 Prediction 5 Control 5 // Framework Linking Nursing Research to the World of Nursing 5 Concrete-Abstract Continuum 5 // Empirical World 6 Reality Testing 6 Abstract Thought Processes 7 Science 10 Theory 11 Knowledge 11 Philosophy 14 // ! The Evolution of Research in nursing 19 // ical Development of Research in NursFlorence Nightingale 20 Early 1900s 20 // Nursing Research in the 1950s and 1960s 21 // Nursing Research in the 1970s 21 // Nursing Research in the 1980s and 1990s 22 // Nursing Research in the 21st Century 24 Background for the Research Process 25 Comparison of the Problem-Solving Process and the Nursing Process 25 Comparison of the Nursing Process and the Research Process 25 ?5?10 Research Methodologies 26 Introduction to Quantitative and Qualitative Research 26 // C rmparison of Quantitative and Qualitative Research 27 // Use of Triangulation to Combine Quantitative and Qualitative Research Methodologies 29 // Types of Quantitative and Qualitative Research 29 // Outcomes Research 32 Intervention Research 33 // 3 Introduction to Quantitative Research 37 // Concepts Relevant to Quantitative Research 37 Basic Research 37 Applied Research 38 Rigor in Quantitative Research 38 Control in Quantitative Research 39 Steps of the Quantitative Research Process 42 Formulating a Research Problem and Purpose 42 // Review of Relevant Literature 43 Developing a Framework 44 Formulating Research Objectives, Questions, and Hypotheses 44 Defining Research Variables 45 Making Assumptions Explicit 46 Identifying Limitations 47 Selecting a Research Design 47 Defining the Population and Sample 47 Selecting Methods of Measurement 49 Developing a Plan for Data Collection and Analysis 49 //

Implementing the Research Plan 49 Communicating Research Findings 52 Types of Quantitative Research 52 Descriptive Research 52 Correlational Research 52 Quasi-Experimental Research 52 Experimental Research 55 // 4 Introduction to Qualitative Research 61 // The Logic of Qualitative Research 61 Gestalts 61 // Experiencing Gestalt Change 62 Changing Gestalts in Nursing 63 Philosophy and Qualitative Research 64 // Rigor in Qualitative Research 64 Approaches to Qualitative Research 64 Phenomenological Research 65 // Grounded Theory Research 67 // Ethnographic Research 68 Historical Research 70 Philosophical Inquiry 74 Critical Social Theory 77 // II...The Research Process 83 // 5 Research Problem and Purpose 85 // What Is a Research Problem and Purpose? 85 Sources of Research Problems 86 Nursing Practice 87 Researcher and Peer Interactions 88 Literature Review 88 Theory 90 Research Priorities 92 Formulating a Research Problem and Purpose 94 // Research Topics 94 Generating Questions 94 Clarifying and Refining a Research Problem 95 // Research Purpose 96 Example of Problem and Purpose Development 96 // Research Problem 97 // Research Purpose 97 // Research Questions 97 Feasibility of a Study 97 Time Commitment 97 Money Commitment 97 // Researcher Expertise 97 // Availability of Subjects 97 Availability of Facilities and Equipment 99 Cooperation of Others 99 // Ethical Considerations 99 // Quantitative, Qualitative, and Outcomes Research Topics, Problems, and Purposes 99 // 6 Review of Relevant Literature 107 // What Is “The Literature”? 107 Time Frame for a Literature Review 109 Searching the Literature 109 Developing a Search Strategy 110 // Select Databases to Search 110 // Select Keywords 111 Use Reference Management Software 113 Locate Relevant Literature 113 // Reading and Critiquing Sources 118 // Skimming Sources 118 Comprehending Sources 118

Comprehending Sources 118 Analyzing Sources 119 Synthesizing Sources 119 Writing the Review of Literature 123 Sorting Your Sources 123 Developing the Written Review 123 Checking References 125 Example of a Literature Review 125 // 7 Frameworks 131 // Definition of Terms 131 Concept 132 Relational Statements 135 Conceptual Models 139 Theory 141 Conceptual Maps 145 The Steps of Constructing a Study Framework 145 // Selecting and Defining Concepts 146 Developing Relational Statements 147 Developing Hierarchical Statement Sets 149 // Constructing a Conceptual Map 149 Constructing a Study Framework From Substantive Theory 150 Constructing a Study Framework on the Basis of a Conceptual Model 153 The Critique of Frameworks: Theoretical Substruction 159 // 8 Objectives, Questions, and Hypotheses 169 // Formulating Research Objectives 169 Formulating Research Questions 171 Formulating Hypotheses 172 Purpose of Hypotheses 172 // Sources of Hypotheses 173 // Types of Hypotheses 174 Developing Hypotheses 179 Testing Hypotheses 180 Selecting Objectives, Questions, or Hypotheses for Quantitative or Qualitative Research 181 Defining Research Variables 182 Types of Variables 183 Operationalizing Variables or Concepts 186 // 9 Ethics and Research 191 // Historical Events Affecting the Development of Ethical Codes and Regulations 191 Nazi Medical Experiments 192 Nuremberg Code 192 // Contents XV // Declaration of Helsinki 192 Taskegee Syphilis Study 193 Willowbrook Study 194 Jewish Chronic Disease Hospital Study 194 Other Unethical Studies 194 L S Department of Health, Education and Welfare Regulations 195 Naiional Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research 195 don of Human Rights 196 Right to Self-Determination 196 Right to Privacy 200 Right to Autonomy and Confidentially 201 // Right to Fair Treatment 202

Right to Protection from Discomfort and Harm 203 // Benefits and Risks for a Study 205 Assessment of Benefits 205 Assessment of Risks 205 Berient-Risk Ratio 206 // ig Informed Consent 206 Information Essential for Consent 207 Comprehension of Consent Informa-non 208 // Competency to Give Consent 210 Voluntary Consent 210 Documentation of Informed Consent 210 // Review 213 Levels of Reviews Conducted by Institutional Review Boards 213 Proposed Reform of Institutional Review Boards 215 // Misconduct 216 // deposed Policy for Research 216 // Research Subjects 218 // UNDERSTANDING RESEARCH 223 // Important to Design 224 // Causality 224 // ..usality 224 ..ility 225 // ..lity and Nursing Philosophy 225 .. ilation 226 // Validity 226 // ... Conclusion Validity 227 Validity 228 Validity 230 Validity 232 // Elements of a Good Design 233 Controlling the Environment 233 Controlling Equivalence of Subjects and Groups 233 // Controlling the Treatment 234 Controlling Measurement 235 Controlling Extraneous Variables 235 Participatory Research 238 Triangulation 239 // Data Triangulation 239 Investigator Triangulation 239 Theoretical Triangulation 240 Methodological Triangulation 240 Analysis Triangulation 241 Pros and Cons of Triangulation 241 // 11 Selecting a Research Design 247 // Descriptive Study Designs 248 // Typical Descriptive Study Design 249 Comparative Descriptive Designs 249 Time Dimensional Design 250 Case Study Design 255 Surveys 256 Correlational Studies 256 // Descriptive Correlational Design 256 Predictive Design 257 Model-Testing Designs 258 Quasi-Experimental Study Designs 259 // Random Assignment to Groups 260 // Nonequivalent Control Group Designs 261 Interrupted Time-Series Designs 265 Experimental Study Designs 268 // The Classic Experimental Design 268 Posttest-only Control Group Design 269 Randomized Block Design 269 Factorial Designs 270 //

Nested Designs 271 // Crossover or Counterbalanced Designs 271 Randomized Clinical Trials 273 Studies That Do Not Use Traditional Research Designs 276 // Primary Prevention and Health Promotion Studies 276 Secondary Analysis 277 Meta-Analysis Designs 278 Methodological Designs 279 Decision Trees for Selecting Research Designs 280 // 12 Outcomes Research 287 // A Brief History of Outcomes Research 287 Prominent Figures in History 287 The Agency for Health Services Research 289 // The Agency for Health Care Policy and Research 289 // Outcomes Research and Nursing Practice 294 Evidence-Based Practice 296 The Theoretical Basis of Outcomes Research 297 // Evaluating Outcomes 299 Evaluating Process 299 Evaluating Structure 300 Methodologies for Outcomes Studies 301 Samples and Sampling 304 Research Strategies for Outcomes Studies 306 // Measurement Methods 314 Statistical Methods for Outcomes Studies 319 // Disseminating Outcomes Research Findings 323 // 13 Intervention Research 331 // What Are Nursing Interventions? 331 Problems With the True Experiment 332 Intervention Research 334 The Process of Intervention Research 334 Project Planning 334 Gathering Information 336 Developing an Intervention Theory 340 Designing the Intervention 347 Establishing an Observation System 351 Testing the Intervention 353 Collecting and Analyzing Data 358 Dissemination 359 // 14 Sampling 365 // Sampling Theory 365 // Elements and Populations 365 Sampling Criteria 366 Representativeness 367 Sampling Error 368 Random Sampling 369 Sampling Frames 369 Sampling Plans 369 // Probability (Random) Sampling Methods 370 Simple Random Sampling 370 Stratified Random Sampling 371 Cluster Sampling 372 Systematic Sampling 373 Nonprobability (Nonrandom) Sampling Methods 374 // Convenience (Accidental) Sampling 374 Quota Sampling 375 Purposive Sampling 376 Network Sampling 376 Sample Size 377 //

Effect Size 378 Type of Study 379 Number of Variables 379 Measurement Sensitivity 380 Data Analysis Techniques 380 Recruiting and Retaining Subjects 381 Recruiting Subjects 381 Retaining Subjects 384 // 15 The Concepts of Measurement 389 // Directness of Measurement 389 Measurement Error 390 // Types of Measurement Errors 390 Levels of Measurement 393 // Nominal-Scale Measurement 393 Ordinal-Scale Measurement 393 // Interval-Scale Measurement 394 // Ratio-Level Measurement 394 The Importance of Level of Measurement for Statistical Analyses 394 Controversy over Measurement Levels 394 Reference of Measurement 395 Reliability 395 Stability 396 Equivalence 397 Homogeneity 398 Validity 399 // Content-Related Validity Evidence 400 Evidence of Validity from Factor Analysis 403 // Evidence of Validity from Structural Analysis 403 // Evidence of Validity from Contrasting Groups 403 // Evidence of Validity from Examining Convergence 404 Evidence of Validity from Examining Divergence 404 // Evidence of Validity from Discriminant Analysis 404 // Evidence of Validity from Prediction of Future Events 404 Evidence of Validity from Prediction of Concurrent Events 404 Successive Verification of Validity 404 Reliability and Validity of Physiological Measures 404 Accuracy 405 Selectivity 405 Precision 405 Sensitivity 406 Error 406 // Obtaining Validity in Qualitative Research 406 // Measurement Strategies in Nursing 411 // Physiological Measurement 411 // Obtaining Physiological Measures by SelfReport 412 // Obtaining Physiological Measures by Observation 412 // Obtaining Physiological Measures Directly or Indirectly 413 // Obtaining Physiological Measures from Laboratory Tests 413 // Obtaining Physiological Measures Through Electronic Monitoring 413 Creative Development of Physiological Measures 415 // Obtaining Physiological Measures Across Time 415 //

Selecting A Physiological Measure 416 Observational Measurement 418 Unstructured Observations 419 Structured Observations 419 Inten iews 420 Focus Groups 424 Questionnaires 426 Scales 431 Delphi Technique 436 Projective Techniques 437 Diaries 438 // Selection of an Existing Instrument 441 Locating Existing Instruments 441 Evaluating Existing Instruments 442 Assessing Readability Levels of Instruments 442 // i’Constructing Scales 442 // Constructing a Scale by Using Classic Test Theory 443 // Constructing a Scale by Using Item Response Theory 445 // Constructing a Scale by Using Multidimensional Scaling 445 Constructing a Scale by Using Unfolding Theory 445 // Translating a Scale to Another Language 446 // Collecting and Managing Data 453 // Panning Data Collection 453 // Planning Data Collection Procedures 453 Decision Points 453 Consistency 455 // Time Factors 455 Cost Factors 455 // Developing Data Collection Forms 456 Developing a Codebook for Data Definitions 458 Collecting Data 460 // Data Collection Tasks 461 Data Collection Problems 462 Serendipity 467 // Having Access to Support Systems 467 Support of Academic Committees 468 Institutional Support 468 Personal Support 468 Managing Data 468 // Preparing Data for Computer Entry 468 The Data Entry Period 469 // 18 Introduction to Statistical Analysis 473 // The Concepts of Statistical Theory 473 Probability Theory 474 Decision Theory and Hypothesis Testing 474 Inference 475 The Normal Curve 475 Sampling Distributions 475 Sampling Distribution of a Statistic 476 The Shapes of Distributions 477 Standardized Scores 478 Confidence Intervals 479 Statistics and Parameters, Samples and Populations 480 // Estimation of Parameters 480 Degrees of Freedom 481 Tailedness 482 // Type I and Type II Errors 482 // Level of Significance — Controlling the Risk of a Type I Error 485 //

Power—Controlling the Risk of a Type II Error 485 // Clinical Significance 486 Parametric and Nonparametric Statistical Analysis 486 // Practical Aspects of Data Analysis 487 // Purposes of Statistical Analysis 487 // The Process of Data Analysis 487 Preparation of the Data for Analysis 487 Description of the Sample 488 Testing the Reliability of Measurement 489 // Exploratory Analysis of the Data 489 Confirmatory Analysis 489 Post Hoc Analysis 489 // Storing Computer Printouts from Data Analysis 490 // Resources for Statistical Analysis 491 Computer Programs 491 Statistical Assistance 492 Choosing Appropriate Statistical Procedures for a Study 492 // 19 Using Statistics to Describe 499 // Using Statistics to Summarize Data 499 Frequency Distributions 499 Measures of Central Tendency 501 Using Statistics to Explore Deviations in the Data 502 // Stem-and-Leaf Displays 505 Residual Analysis 507 Using Statistics to Describe Patterns Across Time 513 // Analysis of Case Study Data 513 Survival Analysis 513 Time-Series Analysis 514 // 20 Using Statistics to Examine Relationships 525 // Scatter Diagrams 525 // Bivariate Correlational Analysis 525 // The Spearman Rank-Order Correlation Coefficient 526 Kendall’s Tau 527 // Pearson’s Product-Moment Correlation Coefficient 528 // Testing The Significance of a Correlational Coefficient 530 Spurious Correlations 531 The Role of Correlation in Understanding Causality 532 // Multivariate Correlational Procedures 532 Factor Analysis 532 Canonical Correlation 538 Structural Equation Modeling 541 // 21 Using Statistics to Predict 547 // Simple Linear Regression 547 Calculation 547 Interpretation of Results 549 Multiple Regression 549 Assumptions 550 Multicollinearity 550 Types of Independent Variables Used in Regression Analyses 551 Results 553 Cross-Validation 554 // Exploratory Regression Analysis 555 //

Confirmatory Regression Analysis 557 Discriminant Analysis 561 // 22 Using Statistics to Examine Causality 569 // Contingency Tables 569 // Chi-Squared Test of Independence 570 Phi 572 Cramer’s V 573 The Contingency Coefficient 573 Lambda 574 Nonparametric Tests 574 // McNemar Test for Significance of Changes 574 Sign Test 575 // Wilcoxon Matched-Pairs Signed-Ranks Test 575 // Mann-Whitney U Test 576 Kolmogorov-Smimov Two-Sample Test 577 // Wald-Wolfowitz Runs Test 578 The Kruskal-Wallis One-Way Analysis of Variance by Ranks 579 // The Cochran Q Test 579 // The Friedman Two-Way Analysis of Variance by Ranks 580 r Tests 581 // t Tests for Independent Samples 581 t Tests for Related Samples 582 Analysis of Variance Procedures 583 One-Way Analysis of Variance 583 Factorial Analyses of Variance 586 Analysis of Covariance 587 // 23 Qualitative Research Methodology 591 // Data Analysis Issues 591 // Using the Computer for Qualitative Analysis 591 Auditability 593 Method Mixing 593 Data Collection Methods 593 // Researcher-Participant Relationships 594 Reflexive Thought 595 Data Management and Reduction 596 Displaying Data for Analysis and Presentation 600 // Drawing and Verifying Conclusions 602 Storytelling 605 Life Stories 606 // Research Methodology of Specific Qualitative Approaches 606 // Contents xix // Phenomenological Research Methods 606 Grounded Theory Methodology 610 Ethnographic Methodology 612 Historical Research Methodology 613 Philosophical Studies 615 // 24 Interpreting Research Outcomes 623 // Examining Evidence 623 // Evidence from the Research Plan 624 Evidence from Measurement 624 // Evidence from the Data Collection Process 625 // Evidence from the Data Analysis Process 625 // Evidence from Data Analysis Results 626 Evidence from Previous Studies 627 Findings 627 Forming Conclusions 629 Exploring the Significance of Findings 630 //

Generalizing the Findings 631 Considering Implications 631 Suggesting Further Studies 632 // 23 Communicating Research Findings 635 // Content of a Research Report 635 Quantitative Research Report 636 Qualitative Research Report 641 Tbeses and Dissertations 643 Aadiences for Communication of Research Find-ngs 643 // Strategies for Communicating Research to Different Audiences 644 ftesenting Research Findings 647 Verbal Presentations 647 Poster Sessions 649  Wishing Research Findings 650 // Publishing Journal Articles 651 // IjMdishing Research Findings in On-Line Jour-r-ik 655 //...blishing Research Findings in Books 656 ; Duplicate Publication in the Nursing Literamrt 656 // Strategies for Using // Research in Practice 661 // ..utical Analysis of Nursing Studies 663 // ... of the Research Critique in Nursing 663 // Types of Research Critiques Conducted in Nursing 664 // Critique Process for Quantitative Studies 666 Step I—Comprehension 667 // Step II—Comparison 669 // Step III—Analysis 669 // Step IV—Evaluation 672 // Step V—Conceptual Clustering 673 // Critique Process for Qualitative Studies 674 Skills Needed to Critique Qualitative Studies 674 // Standards for Critique of Qualitative Studies 675 // 27 Utilization of Research to Promote Evidence-Based Nursing Practice 683 // Problems Related to Knowledge Utilization 683 // Problems Related to the Use of Research Findings in Nursing 684 Theories of Utilization 686 // Rogers’ Theory of Diffusion of Innovations 686 // Havelock’s Linker Systems 690 Research Utilization Projects and Models for Nursing 692 WICHE 692 CURN 694 // Stetler Model of Research Utilization 695 Promoting Research Utilization in Nursing 698 // Strategies to Facilitate Research Utilization 698 // Example Research Utilization Project 699 // Evidence-Based Practice for Nursing 705 //

IV. Seeking Support for Research Activities 715 // 28 Proposal Writing for Research Approval 717 // Writing a Research Proposal 717 Developing Ideas Logically 717 Determining the Depth of a Proposal 718 Identifying Critical Points 718 Developing an Aesthetically Appealing Copy 718 // Content of a Research Proposal 718 Content of a Student Proposal 718 Content of a Condensed Proposal 725 Content of a Preproposal 726 // Seeking Approval for a Study 726 Approval Process 726 Preparing Proposals for Review Committees 727 // Social and Political Factors 727 Verbal Defense of a Proposal 728 Revising a Proposal 729 Sample Quantitative Research Proposal 729 // 29 Seeking Funding for Research 745 // Purposes for Seeking Research Funding 745 Ways to Learn Grantsmanship 746 Attending Grantsmanship Courses 746 Developing a Reference Group 746 Joining Research Organizations 746 Serving on Research Committees 747 Networking 747 Assisting a Researcher 748 Obtaining a Mentor 748 Becoming a Funded Researcher 748 Conducting Research on a Shoestring 749 Obtaining Foundation Grants 750 Obtaining Federal Grants 752 // Researcher-Initiated Proposals 752 Requests for Proposals 753 Requests for Applications 753 Developing a Proposal 753 Federal Grant Review Process 754 Grant Management 755 Managing the Budget 755 Training Research Personnel 755 Maintaining the Study Schedule 755 Coordinating Activities 755 Submitting Reports 755 Planning Your Next Grant 756 // Appendix A // TABLE OF RANDOM NUMBERS 760 // Appendix B // CUMULATIVE NORMAL // DISTRIBUTION (Z) 761 // Appendix C // PERCENTAGE POINTS OF STUDENT’S t // DISTRIBUTION 763 // Appendix D // PERCENTAGE POINTS OF THE F DISTRIBUTION 764 // Appendix E // CRITICAL VALUES OF THE *2 DISTRIBUTION 769 // Appendix F // TABLE OF PROBABILITIES ASSOCIATED WITH VALUES AS SMALL AS OBSERVED VALUES OF U IN THE MANN-WHITNEY TEST 770 //

Appendix G // TABLE OF CRITICAL VALUES OF U IN THE MANN-WHITNEY TEST 773 // Appendix H // PERCENTILES OF THE KOLMOGOROV-SMIRNOV TEST STATISTIC 775 // Appendix I // TABLE OF CRITICAL VALUES OF r IN THE RUNS TEST 777 // Appendix J // CRITICAL VALUES FOR THE WILCOXON SIGNED-RANKS TEST 779 // Appendix K // TABLE OF PROBABILITIES ASSOCIATED WITH VALUES AS LARGE AS OBSERVED VALUES OF H IN THE KRUSKAL-WALLIS ONE-WAY ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE BY RANKS 780 // Appendix L // TABLE OF PROBABILITIES ASSOCIATED WITH VALUES AS LARGE AS OBSERVED VALUES OF *2r IN THE FRIEDMAN TWO-WAY ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE BY RANKS 783 // Appendix M // STATISTICAL POWER TABLES 785 // Glossary 789 // Index 815