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BK

Oxford : Oxford University, 1984

ISBN 0-19-285143-8

000090832

Rekat.

ABBREVIATIONS xix // LIST OF MAPS xxi // THE FIRST ROMAN CONTACTS // 1. THE BRITISH BACKGROUND // Britain in Roman eyes 3 // Man and landscape 4 // British prehistory and its interpretation 6 // The Late Iron Age 10 // New patterns of life already emerging 14 // ’The Celts’ 16 // Their language 1 7 // North-western Europe, a common culture? 18 // 2. THE EXPEDITIONS OF CAESAR // The Roman Republic 20 // Its character and decay 21 // Caesar 22 // His decision to invade Britain 23 // The expedition of 55 BC 25 // The expedition of 54 BC 31 // Failure or success? 38 // 3. FROM CAESAR TO CLAUDIUS // Britain between the Invasions: political and cultural affinities 40 // The end of the Roman Republic 48 // Augustus and Britain 50 // Roman attitudes to war and government 52 // Stability and instability in Roman state and character 54 // The changing scene in Late Pre-Roman Britain 55 // Gaius’ expedition 60 // Its abortion 60 // Its significance 61 // Note: Augustus and Britain, 27 BC 61 // 11. THE ROMAN CONQUEST // 4. THE CLAUDIAN INVASION // Romans and the acquisition of empire 65 // Death of Cunobelinus; changes in Britain 67 // Accession of Claudius 68 // His reasons for invading Britain 69 // The Roman army under the Early Empire 72 // The Britons as warriors 76 // Rome becomes a more formidable enemy // Growing power of the emperor // Invasion and victory // Claudius’ part in the campaign // The new province // Client kingdoms // Vespasian in the west // The ’Fosse Way Frontier’-a tenable concept? // Notes: Motives for the Invasion: a geographical theory // Exeter, II Augusta and the transfer of legions // 5. RESISTANCE AND REVOLT // Ostorius Scapula as governor // Revolt of the Iceni // The Deceangli: the first probe into North Wales // The Brigantian problem begins // The Roman flank in South Wales // Caratacus raises a new war against Rome // Defeat of Caratacus //

His surrender by Cartimandua, a new British success for Claudius // The Silures and the death of Ostorius // The Brigantes again: Venutius // Death of Claudius: a new regime at Rome // Vacillation and ambiguity towards Britain // Suetonius Paulinus: Anglesey // The British aristocracy the key to peace // Causes of the Boudiccan revolt // The course of the war // Classicianus, Polyclitus, Suetonius, and pacification // Note: The recall of Suetonius Paulinus // The question of the Ninth legion 174 // The Wall 175 // Civil development 185 // Army and civilian: the seeds of discord 187 // Town and country 188 // The Fenland 189 // Note: Hadrian’s Wall and Offa’s Dyke 190 // 8. THE ANTONINES // Antoninus Pius and the legacy of Hadrian 192 // The invasion of Scotland 193 // The Antonine Wall 194 // The ’Genounian’ incident 199 // The Antonine Wall evacuated 200 // Alternative chronologies 201 // Marcus Aurelius 203 // Second occupation of the Antonine Wall and its end 205 // The Danubian wars: barbarian pressure becomes serious 207 // Defeat and recovery in Britain: Ulpius Marcellus 210 // Britain and the army under Commodus 211 // Assassination of Commodus: Pertinax proclaimed 214 // 6. RECOVERY AND ADVANCE // A slow recovery // The winning of the British aristocracy // Britain and the Year of the Four Emperors // The revolt of Venutius // Petillius Cerialis and Julius Frontinus // Agricola // Agricola and Romanization // Mons Graupius // Britain won and lost? // Nerva, Trajan, and the new regime // Britain at the opening of the second century // Note: The date of the arrival of Agricola and of the forums at // Verulamium and Cirencester // 7. HADRIANIC BRITAIN // Hadrian and the empire // Hadrian in Britain // III. IMPERIAL CRISIS AND RECOVERY // 9 . CIVIL WAR AND ITS AFTERMATH // The struggle for the throne // Clodius Albinus and the events of 197 //

Retribution and restoration in Britain // The expedition and death of Severus // The uneasy accession of Caracalla and Geta // Caracallan policy in Britain // Britain by AD 200: a retrospect // ’Town and country’, ’Roman and native’, and other problems // of social definition // 10 FROM CARACALLA TO DIOCLETIAN // Romans and barbarians // ( aracallan policy in Britain assessed // Problems of the historian // Restoration and change in northern Britain // l hr governors of the two provinces // Military developments in the south // I own walls and their interpretation // I hr condition of the towns // imperial disorder // The empire assailed from east and west // I he role of the army // I he ’Imperium Galliarum’ // Iritain after the fall of the Gallic Empire // 11. THE TETRARCHY // AD 284-the end of Ancient History? // Diocletian, Maximian, and Carausius // The Tetrarchy // Diocletian and change // The Carausian regime // The Saxon Shore // Constantius I as Caesar // Allectus replaces Carausius // Constantius’ conquest of Britain // A barbarian invasion in 296? // Britain in the imperial system under Diocletian and after // Constantius becomes Augustus // His British campaign of 306 and the Picts // Notes: Comitatus // The Saxon Shore // 12. CONSTANTINE THE GREAT // The elevation of Constantine at York // Dating the restoration of the north // Prosperity in town and country // Constantine and the reorganization of the army // Comitatenses and limitanei // The Notitia Dignitatum // The organizational consequences of Diocletian’s economic reforms // The fourth-century provincial governor // A transfer of wealth and power to the Church // Creed as a new dimension in Roman politics // Office-holders in fourth-century Britain // 13. THE MIDDLE OF THE FOURTH CENTURY // Death of Constantine and its consequences // Fragmentation of army and administration //

Constans in Britain // The praetorian prefecture of Gaul // Magnentius // The recovery of Britain and its aftermath // Julian and Britain // Changes at Constantinople and their significance // Further developments in the army // Prolonged adversity and the state of morale in Britain // The towns // Note: Julian and his senior officers // 14. THE RESTORATION OF ORDER // Valentinian I // The German element in the Late Roman state // The ’barbarian conspiracy’ of 367 // The expedition of the elder Theodosius // The reconstruction // ’German mercenaries’ in Britain? // City defences and city garrisons // The problem of ’Valentia’ // Late fourth-century Britain // Theodosius the Great // Magnus Maximus // The foederati // A new pattern of frontier defence? // Arbogast and Eugenius // The empire reunited // Death of Theodosius // Notes: Military uniform and civilians // Foederati // The province of Valentia // Maximus and heresy // The towns in the second half of the fourth century // Late frontier defence // IV. ROMAN BRITAIN AND THE FIFTH CENTUR Y WORLD // 15. IHE COLLAPSE OF IMPERIAL RULE // Arcadius and Honorius // Shift of power in the Roman state // Increased importance of the barbarian allies // Diplomacy and war // Stilicho and Britain // Ihe barbarians cross the Rhine: irreversible consequences // Britain revolts from Honorius // Constantine III // Barbarian attack on Britain // Expulsion of Constantine’s officers from Britain // The end of Roman rule in Britain // Disintegration of the regular army? // Administration in Britain after 409 // I he ’Rescript of Honorius’ // Note: Britain, AD 406-10 // 1 6 BRITAIN, THE END OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE, // AND THE SUCCESSOR STATES // A r evival in the fortunes of the imperial government // I hr partition of Gaul // Survival of the provincial aristocracy // Britain after the break with Rome //

Economic change and the nature of ’prosperity’ // Stratigraphy and the towns // I he countryside // Power, society, and politics // The first visit of St. Germanus // Vortigern // The ’Adventus Saxonum’ // Career of Aetius: implications for Britain // Second visit of St. Germanus // The latter part of the fifth century // The crisis in the west // The struggle in Britain // King Arthur? // The end of the empire in the west // Dissolution of the western Roman army // Britain and Gaul // Their condition around AD 500 // Notes: Sources for fifth-century Britain // Vortigern and the ’Concilium Britanniarum’ // V. BRITAIN UNDER ROMAN RULE // 17. THE ASSIMILATION OF BRITAIN // The instruments of Romanization // Race, class, and culture // Latin // The army // Immigration // Temporary residents // Religion // The machinery of government // The changing centre of power // Patronage and the importance of access // The governor and his staff // The limits of authority // Administration of justice // The command of the army // Finance // The provincial council // Local government: rationale and practice // Notes’. The municipal aristocracy // Chesterholm (Vindolanda) // 18. THE HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY OF ROMAN BRITAIN // Ancient and modern approaches // Population // Numbers // Health and mortality // Landscape // Density of Iron Age occupation // Man and environment in the Roman period // Post-Roman Britain // Communications // A conflict of opinion // Water and road transport compared // Travellers: official, private, and the Imperial Post // Messages and signals // Britain a special case // Note’. Palaeobotany and the ancient environment // TOWN AND COUNTRY // Urbanization in Britain, an artificial imposition by Rome? // Cities and their regions // Significance of the ’city’ in the ancient world // The civic unit // The ordo and magistrates // Finance // Public services //

Variations in urban development // Towns, agriculture, and the immediate hinterland // Rural patterns // Types of settlement in the countryside // ’Town’ and ’country’ discrete? // The small towns of Roman Britain // Villas, farms, and the organization of the land // Villa and village? // Rural settlement on the northern frontier // Note: The Roman villa // THE ECONOMY // Economics and the ancient world // Agriculture // Manufacturing and extractive industries // Fuel and power // Mining // The iron industry // Pottery // Three examples of commerce and industry // The wine trade // Textiles // Mosaics // Small businesses // Money and coinage // The economic significance of the end of Roman rule // Note: Ancient crop yields // RELIGION AND SOCIETY // Religion and its place in society // ’Conflation’ // A classification of cults // Native British // Classical // Imported non-Roman // Interpretation of the archaeology and its limits // Celtic and Roman religion 669 // Sanctuaries 670 // The concept of priesthood 676 // Druids 677 // The severed head 681 // Traditional Roman religion 681 // The Imperial Cult and related public worship 682 // Personal religion 683 // Healing cults 686 // Curses and magic 688 // Rural shrines and their contents 690 // Death and burial 693 // Lares, penates, and other family cults 707 // Philosophy and the mystery religions 709 // Mithraism 711 // Christianity and the nature of the Church in Britain 714 // Survival of paganism 735 // Collapse of the Romano-British Church? 738 // Note Religion in Roman Britain: addenda 739 // APPENDICES // 1. A note on Roman names 740 // II. Roman emperors from Augustus to Justinian 742 // HI. Governors of the British provinces 746 // IV. Tiberius Claudius Cogidubnus? , 748 // BIBLIOGRAPHY 753 // INDEX 777