.

0 (hodnocen0 x )

(0.3) Půjčeno:1x 

BK

New York : McGraw-Hill, c1990

ISBN 0-07-072859-3

000091367

Rekat.

PREFACE Xiii // PERMISSIONS/ACKNOWLEDGMENTS XVII // 1 Introduction 2 // PSYCHOLOGY AS A SCIENCE 3 // THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD 5 // Scientific and Nonscientific Approaches to Knowledge 5 // Goals of the Scientific Method 21 // THE GOALS OF THIS BOOK 29 // SUMMARY 30 // KEY CONCEPTS 31 // REVIEW QUESTIONS 31 // CHALLENGE QUESTIONS 32 // PART I DESCRIPTIVE METHODS // 2 Observation 36 // OVERVIEW 37 // CLASSIFICATION OF OBSERVATIONAL METHODS 38 // OBSERVATION WITHOUT INTERVENTION 38 // OBSERVATION WITH INTERVENTION 40 // Participant Observation 41 // Structured Observation 44 // Field Experiments 46 // RECORDING BEHAVIOR 47 // Narrative Records 48 // Recording Units of Behavior 53 // SAMPLING TECHNIQUES 59 // Behavior Sampling 59 // Situation Sampling 61 // ANALYSIS OF OBSERVATIONAL DATA 61 // Data Reduction 61 // Observer Reliability 63 // vii // vili CONTENTS // PROBLEMS IN THE CONDUCT OF OBSERVATIONAL RESEARCH 66 // Influence of the Observer 66 // Observer Bias 70 // SUMMARY 72 // KEY CONCEPTS 72 // REVIEW QUESTIONS 73 // CHALLENGE QUESTIONS 73 // 3 Surveys and Questionnaires 76 // OVERVIEW 77 // USES AND CHARACTERISTICS OF SURVEYS 78 // SAMPLING TECHNIQUES 80 // Basic Terminology of Sampling 80 // Approaches to Sampling 84 // SURVEY METHODS 89 // Mail Surveys 90 // Personal Interviews 91 // Telephone Interviews 92 // SURVEY RESEARCH DESIGNS 93 // One-shot or Cross-sectional Study 93 // Successive Independent Samples Study 95 // Panel or Longitudinal Study 97 // Questionnaire Construction 98 // ANALYSIS OF SURVEY RESULTS 100 // Descriptive Measures 100 // Correlational Studies 102 // Cross Tabulations 103 // Control Variables and Explanation 104 // VALIDITY OF SURVEY RESULTS 106 // PREPARING THE QUESTIONNAIRE 107 // Steps in Preparing a Questionnaire 107 // Guidelines for Effective Wording of Questions 109 // Guidelines for General Format of the Questionnaire 111 //

SUMMARY 116 // KEY CONCEPTS 117 // REVIEW QUESTIONS 118 // CHALLENGE QUESTIONS 119 // 4 Alternatives to Direct Observation and Surveys: Physical // Traces, Archival Data, and Case Studies 122 // OVERVIEW 123 // PHYSICAL TRACES 124 // Rationale 124 // Types of Physical Traces 125 // Problems and Limitations 128 // ARCHIVAL DATA 129 // Rationale 129 // Types of Archival Data 133 // Content Analysis 134 // Illustrative Uses of Archival Data 138 // Problems and Limitations 140 // THE CASE STUDY METHOD 143 // Characteristics 143 // Advantages of the Case Study Method 145 // Disadvantages of the Case Study Method 148 // The Case Study Method: Final Comments 151 // SUMMARY 151 // KEY CONCEPTS 152 // REVIEW QUESTIONS 153 // CHALLENGE QUESTIONS 153 // PART II EXPERIMENTAL METHODS // 5 Independent Groups: Design and Analysis 158 // OVERVIEW 159 // CHARACTERISTICS OF SOUND EXPERIMENTS 160 // EXPERIMENTAL CONTROL 161 // RANDOM GROUPS DESIGN 164 // Random Selection versus Random Assignment 164 // Establishing External Validity 166 // Challenges to Internal Validity 170 // ALTERNATIVE INDEPENDENT GROUPS DESIGNS 173 // Matched Groups Design 173 // Natural Groups Design 176 // SPECIAL CONTROL AND DESIGN PROBLEMS 177 // Placebo Control and Double-Blind Experiments 177 // Yoked-Control Design 179 // Testing Intact Groups 180 // Regression to the Mean 181 // ANALYSIS OF INDEPENDENT GROUPS DESIGN EXPERIMENTS 182 // Null Hypothesis Testing 185 // Analysis of Variance 188 // Analytical Comparisons 192 // Limits of Statistical Significance 193 // SUMMARY 194 // KEY CONCEPTS 196 // REVIEW QUESTIONS 197 // CHALLENGE QUESTIONS 198 // X CONTENTS // 6 Within-Subjects: Design and Analysis 202 // OVERVIEW 203 // STAGE-OF-PRACTICE EFFECTS 205 // BALANCING STAGE-OF-PRACTICE EFFECTS 206 // Complete Within-Subjects Design 206 // Incomplete Within-Subjects Design 212 //

LIMITATIONS OF THE WITHIN-SUBJECTS DESIGN 220 // Differential Transfer 220 // Documenting Differential Transfer 221 // ANALYSIS OF WITHIN-SUBJECTS DESIGN EXPERIMENTS 222 // Determining the Effect of the Independent Variable 223 // Determining Stage-of-Practice Effects 226 // SUMMARY 230 // KEY CONCEPTS 231 // REVIEW QUESTIONS 231 // CHALLENGE QUESTIONS 231 // 7 Complex Designs and Analysis 236 // OVERVIEW 237 // INTRODUCTION TO COMPLEX DESIGNS 238 // Guidelines for Identifying an Experimental Design 238 // Advantages of Complex Designs 239 // THE NATURE OF INTERACTIONS 244 // The 2x2 Design 244 // Beyond the 2x2: Two Illustrations 249 // INTERPRETING INTERACTIONS 254 // Generality of Findings 254 // Identifying Relevant Independent Variables 255 // Ceiling and Basement Effects 257 // INTERACTIONS AND THE NATURAL GROUPS DESIGN 258 // ANALYSIS OF COMPLEX DESIGNS 261 // Logic of Analysis Procedures 261 // Analysis of a Complex Design with No Interaction 263 // Analysis of a Complex Design with an Interaction 265 // SUMMARY 268 // KEY CONCEPTS 269 // REVIEW QUESTIONS 269 // CHALLENGE QUESTIONS 270 // PART III APPLIED RESEARCH // 8 N = 1 Designs 276 // CONTENTS Xi // OVERVIEW 277 // INTRODUCTION 278 // Behaviorism 278 // Experimental Methods 279 // APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS 289 // Historical Background 289 // Single-Case (?/ = 1) Experimental Designs 290 // Specific Experimental Designs 293 // Problems and Limitations Common to All Single-Case Designs 299 // SUMMARY 302 // KEY CONCEPTS 304 // REVIEW QUESTIONS 304 // CHALLENGE QUESTIONS 305 // 9 Quasi-Experimental Designs and Program Evaluation 308 // OVERVIEW 309 // DIFFERENCES BETWEEN LABORATORY EXPERIMENTS AND // EXPERIMENTS IN NATURAL SETTINGS 310 // Control 310 // External Validity 311 // Goals 311 // Consequences 312 // TRUE EXPERIMENTS AND QUASI-EXPERIMENTS 313 // Characteristics of True Experiments 313 //

Obstacles to Conducting True Experiments in Natural Settings 313 // Threats to Internal Validity Controlled by True Experiments 316 // Problems That Even True Experiments May Not Eliminate 319 // Quasi-Experiments 321 // SPECIFIC QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS 323 // The Nonequivalent Control Group Design 323 // Illustration of the Nonequivalent Control Group Design: Langer and Rodin Study 325 // Sources of Invalidity in the Nonequivalent Control Group Design 326 // Interrupted Time-Series Designs 331 // Time Series with Nonequivalent Control Group 334 // AN EXTENSION OF SINGLE-CASE EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS // TO RESEARCH IN NATURAL SETTINGS 337 // Rationale 337 // The ABAB Design 338 // PROGRAM EVALUATION 339 // SUMMARY 343 // KEY CONCEPTS 345 // REVIEW QUESTIONS 345 // CHALLENGE QUESTIONS 346 // PART IV APPENDIXES // A Statistical Methods 351 // B Ethical Issues in the Conduct of Psychological Research 393 // C Scientific Research Reports 423 // D Psychophysics and Scaling 473 // GLOSSARY 487 // REFERENCES 497 // SUBJECT INDEX 511 // AUTHOR INDEX 518