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BK

4th ed.

Philadelphia : Wolters Kluwer/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, c2012

xiv, 641 s. : il. ; 29 cm + 1 DVD

ISBN 978-1-4511-1710-3 (váz.) ISBN !1-4511-1710-8 (chyb.)

"International edition"--Obálka

Obsahuje bibliografii na s. 595-629 a rejstřík

000204989

CONTENTS // Preface...xiii // PART I // Theoretical Framework 1 // 1 Motor Control: Issues and Theories...3 // Introduction...3 // What is Motor Control?... 3 // Why Should Therapists Study Motor Control?...3 // Understanding the Nature of Movement...4 // Factors within the Individual That Constrain Movement...4 // Task Constraints on Movement...5 // Environmental Constraints on Movement...6 // The Control of Movement: Theories of Motor Control...7 // Value of Theory to Practice...8 // Reflex Theory...8 // Hierarchical Theory...9 // Motor Programming Theories...11 // Systems Theory...12 // Ecological Theory...16 // Which Theory of Motor Control is Best?...16 // Parallel Development of Clinical Practice and Scientific Theory...17 // Neurologic Rehabilitation: Reflex-Based Neurofacilitation Approaches...17 // Task-Oriented Approach...19 // Summary...19 // Answers to Lab Activity Assignments...20 // 2 Motor Learning and Recovery of Function... 21 // Introduction to Motor Learning...21 // What is Motor Learning?...21 // Nature of Motor Learning...22 // Early Definitions of Motor Learning...22 // Broadening the Definition of Motor Learning...22 // Relating Performance and Learning...22 // Forms of Learning...22 // Basic Forms of Long-Term Memory: Nondeclarative (Implicit) // and Declarative (Explicit)...23 // Nondeclarative (Implicit) Forms of Learning...23 // Declarative or Explicit Learning...25 // Theories of Motor Learning...26 // Schmidt’s Schema Theory...27 // Ecological Theory...28

// Theories Related to Stages of Learning Motor Skills...30 // Stages of Motor Program Formation...33 // Practical Applications of Motor Learning Research...33 // Practice Levels...34 // Feedback...34 // Practice Conditions...35 // v // vi Contents // Recovery of Function...39 // Concepts Related to Recovery of Function...39 // Factors Affecting Recovery of Function...40 // Summary...43 // Answers to Lab Activity Assignments...44 // 3 Physiology of Motor Control...45 // Introduction and Overview...45 // Motor Control Theories and Physiology...45 // Overview of Brain Function...46 // Neuron—The Basic Unit of the CNS...49 // Sensory/Perceptual Systems...51 // Somatosensory System...51 // Visual System...61 // Vestibular System...66 // Action Systems...69 // Motor Cortex...69 // Higher-Level Association Areas...73 // Cerebellum...73 // Basal Ganglia...76 // Mesencephalon and Brainstem...79 // Summary...81 // 4 Physiological Basis of Motor Learning and Recovery of Function...83 // Introduction...83 // Defining Neural Plasticity...84 // Learning and Memory...84 // Localization of Learning and Memory...85 // Plasticity and Learning...85 // Plasticity and Nondeclarative (Implicit) Forms of Learning...85 // Procedural Learning...87 // Plasticity and Declarative (Explicit) Forms of Learning...89 // Motor Cortex Contributions to Procedural Learning and the Shift from // Implicit to Explicit Knowledge...90 // Complex Forms of Motor Learning...91 // Acquisition of Skill: The Shift to Automaticity...92

// Injury-Induced Plasticity and Recovery of Function...93 // Early Transient Events That Depress Brain Function...93 // Intercellular Responses to Injury...94 // Changes in Cortical Maps after Lesions and during Recovery of Function...96 // Strategies to Enhance Neural Plasticity and Cortical Reorganization...99 // Clinical Implications...100 // Summary...103 // 5 Constraints on Motor Control: An Overview of Neurologic Impairments...104 // Introduction: Signs and Symptoms of Pathophysiology of Motor Control...104 // Classifying Impairments Associated with CNS Lesions...105 // Impairments in the Action Systems...106 // Motor Cortex Deficits...106 // Impairments Associated with Subcortical Pathology...120 // Secondary Musculoskeletal Impairments...126 // Impairments in Sensory/Perceptual Systems...128 // Somatosensory Deficits...128 // Visual Deficits...129 // Vestibular System...129 // Perceptual Impairments...131 // Deficits Related to Pathology in the Frontal Parietal Association Areas...134 // Cognitive Impairments...134 // Treatment of Cognitive Impairments...137 // Contents // vii // A Case Study Approach to Understanding Neurologic Disorders...138 // Jean J.: Impairments Associated with Cerebral Vascular Accident ...138 // Mike M.: Impairments Associated with Parkinson’s Disease...139 // John C.: Impairments Associated with Cerebellar Degeneration...139 // Thomas: Impairments Associated with Spastic Diplegia Cerebral Palsy...139 // Summary...140 // 6 A Conceptual Framework

for Clinical Practice...141 // Introduction...141 // Components of a Conceptual Framework for Clinical Practice...142 // Models of Practice...142 // Models of Functioning and Disability...146 // Hypothesis-Oriented Clinical Practice... 150 // Theories of Motor Control and Learning...151 // Evidence-Based Clinical Practice...151 // Applying a Conceptual Framework to Clinical Practice...152 // Task-Oriented Approach to Examination...152 // Examination of Functional Activities and Participation...152 // Examination at the Strategy Level...155 // Examining Impairments of Body Structure and Function...156 // Task-Oriented Approach to Intervention...156 // Recovery versus Compensation...156 // Summary...157 // Answers to Lab Activity Assignments...158 // PART II // Postural Control...159 // 7 Normal Postural Control ...161 // Introduction...161 // Defining Postural Control...162 // Postural Control Requirements Vary with the Task and Environment...162 // Defining Systems for Postural Control...165 // Stance Postural Control...166 // Action Systems in Postural Control...167 // Perceptual Systems in Postural Control...180 // Anticipatory Postural Control...188 // Cognitive Systems in Postural Control...191 // Seated Postural Control...192 // Summary...193 // Answers to Lab Activity Assignments...193 // 8 Development of Postural Control ...195 // Introduction... 195 // Postural Control and Development...195 // Motor Milestones and Emerging Postural Control...196 // Theories of Developing

Postural Control...197 // Reflex-Hierarchical Theory of Postural Control...197 // New Models of Development...200 // Development of Postural Control: A Systems Perspective...200 // General Movements in Infants...201 // Emerging Head Control...201 // Emergence of Independent Sitting...203 // Transition to Independent Stance...206 // Refinement of Stance Control...212 // Cognitive Systems in Postural Development...218 // viii Contents // Summary...221 // Answers to Lab Activity Assignments...222 // 9 Aging and Postural Control...223 // Introduction...223 // Factors Contributing to Aging...223 // Interactions between Primary and Secondary Factors...224 // Heterogeneity of Aging...224 // Behavioral Indicators of Instability...226 // Defining Falls...226 // Risk Factors for Falls...226 // Age-Related Changes in the Systems of Postural Control...228 // Musculoskeletal System...228 // Neuromuscular System...230 // Sensory Systems...235 // Anticipatory Postural Abilities...239 // Cognitive Issues and Posture Control...240 // A Case Study Approach to Understanding Age-Related // Postural Disorders...243 // Summary...244 // Answers to Lab Activity Assignments...245 // 10 Abnormal Postural Control...246 // Introduction...246 // Falls Following Neurologic Pathology...246 // Problems in the Action Systems...247 // Problems in Quiet Stance...247 // Impaired Movement Strategies during Perturbed Stance...251 // Problems in the Sensory/Perceptual Systems...260 // Problems with Sensory Organization...260

// Loss of Anticipatory Postural Control...263 // Problems in Cognitive Systems...264 // Impaired Postural Stability under Dual-Task Conditions...264 // Postural Control in Persons with Dementia...265 // Impaired Seated Postural Control...266 // Adults with Neurologic Pathology...266 // Pediatric Populations...267 // A Case Study Approach to Understanding Postural Dyscontrol...268 // Jean J: Postural Problems following Cerebral Vascular Accident...268 // Mike M: Postural Problems in Parkinson’s Disease...269 // John C: Postural Problems in Cerebellar Disorders ...269 // Thomas L: Postural Problems in Cerebral Palsy...270 // Summary...270 // 11 Clinical Management of the Patient with a Postural Control Disorder...271 // Introduction...271 // Conceptual Framework for Balance Rehabilitation...271 // Examination...272 // Safety—The First Concern...272 // Examining the Effect of Balance on Participation...272 // Examining the Effect of Balance on Functional Activities...272 // Assessing Strategies for Balance...286 // Examination of Underlying Impairments...293 // Evaluation: Interpreting the Results of the Examination...293 // Task Oriented Balance Rehabilitation...293 // Intervention at the Impairment Level...294 // Activities to Improve Strategies for Postural Control...295 // Intervention at the Functional-Task Level...304 // Contents ix // Improving Participation - Evidence-Based Fall Prevention...305 // Putting It All Together...308 // Summary...308 // Answers to the Lab Activities...310

// PART III // Mobility Functions...313 // 12 Control of Normal Mobility...315 // Introduction...315 // Essential Requirements for Successful Locomotion...316 // Description of the Human Gait Cycle...316 // Phases of the Step Cycle...316 // Temporal and Distance Factors...317 // Kinematic Description of Gait...319 // Muscle Activation Patterns...321 // Joint Kinetics...323 // Control Mechanisms for Gait...325 // Pattern Generators for Gait...325 // Descending Influences...327 // Functional Neural Imaging during Human Gait...329 // Sensory Feedback and Adaptation of Gait...329 // Cognitive Systems in Locomotion...336 // Nonneural Contributions to Locomotion...337 // Initiating Gait and Changing Speeds...338 // Turning Strategies...339 // Walk-Run Transition...339 // Stair-Walking...340 // Ascent...340 // Descent...340 // Adapting Stair-Walking Patterns to Changes in Sensory Cues...341 // Mobility Other Than Gait...341 // Transfers...341 // Sitting to Standing...341 // Supine to Standing...343 // Rising from Bed...344 // Rolling...345 // Summary...346 // Answers to Lab Activity Assignments...347 // 13 A Life Span Perspective of Mobility...348 // Introduction...348 // Development of Locomotion...348 // Prenatal Development... 349 // Early Stepping Behavior...349 // Maturation of Independent Locomotion...353 // Run, Skip, Hop, and Gallop...357 // Development of Adaptation...358 // Head and Trunk Stabilization during Gait...360 // Initiation of Gait...361 // Development of Other Mobility

Skills...361 // Locomotion in Older Adults...363 // Gait Dysfunction: Aging or Pathology?...364 // Temporal and Distance Factors...365 // Kinematic Analysis...365 // Muscle Activation Patterns...366 // Kinetic Analysis...366 // X Contents // Changes in Adaptive Control...367 // Gait Changes in Balance-Impaired Older Adults...371 // Role of Pathology in Gait Changes in the Elderly...373 // Effects of Exercise Programs on Gait Function...375 // Gait Initiation and Backward Gait...375 // Stair-Walking...376 // Age-Related Changes in Other Mobility Skills...376 // Comparing Gait Characteristics of Infants and Elderly: Testing // the Regression Hypothesis...378 // A Case Study Approach to Understanding Age-Related // Changes in Mobility...378 // Summary...379 // Answers to Lab Activity Assignments...380 // 14 Abnormal Mobility...381 // Introduction...381 // Abnormal Gait...382 // Classification Systems...382 // Effect of Motor Impairments on Gait...383 // Effect of Sensory Impairments on Gait...398 // Effect of Cognitive and Perceptual Impairments on Gait...399 // Recovery of Walking: What Factors Limit Participation // in the Mobility Domain?...404 // Disorders of Mobility Other Than Gait...405 // Stair Walking...405 // Transfers and Bed Mobility...405 // A Case Study Approach to Understanding // Mobility Disorders...408 // Jean J: Poststroke Hemiparesis...408 // Mike M: Parkinson’s Disease...409 // John C: Degenerative Cerebellar Injury...412 // Thomas: Spastic Diplegie Cerebral

Palsy...412 // Summary...414 // 15 Clinical Management of the Patient with a Mobility Disorder...415 // Introduction...415 // A Task-Oriented Approach to Examination...416 // Examination at the Functional Level...416 // Examination at the Strategy Level...432 // Examination at the Impairment Level...440 // Measuring Mobility: Do We Really Need All These // Tests and Measures?...441 // Transition to Treatment...441 // Setting Goals...441 // ’Task-Oriented" Approach to Mobility Training...444 // Interventions at the Impairment Level...444 // Intervention at the Strategy Level...445 // Interventions to Improve Functional Locomotor Skills...456 // Research Evidence...458 // Improving Participation in the Mobility Domain...464 // Retraining Stair Walking and Other Mobility Skills...465 // Stair Walking...465 // Importance of Varying Task and Environmental Demands...469 // Summary...472 // Answers to Lab Activity Assignments...472 // Contents xi // PART IV // Reach, Grasp, and Manipulation...475 // 16 Normal Reach, Grasp, and Manipulation...477 // Introduction...477 // Movement Control Principles...478 // Feedforward versus Feedback Control of Movement...478 // Locating a Target...479 // Eye-Head-Trunk Coordination...479 // Interactions between Eye Movements and Hand Movements...480 // Behavioral Characteristics (Kinematics) of Reach and Grasp...481 // Systems Contributing to Reach and Grasp...481 // Sensory Systems...482 // Motor Systems...488 // Grasping...490 // Classification of

Grasping Patterns...490 // Anticipatory Control of Grasping Patterns: Precision Grip Formation...490 // Grasp and Lift Tasks...492 // Coordination of Reach and Grasp...492 // General Principles of Neural Control of Reach and Grasp...493 // Invariant Features of Movement: Motor Programs...493 // Reaction Times for Reach and Grasp...493 // Fitts’ Law...493 // How Does the Nervous System Plan Movements? Muscle Coordinate, // loint-Angle Coordinate, and End-Point-Coordinate Strategies...494 // Distance versus Location Programming Theories...498 // Summary...501 // Answers to Lab Activity Assignments...501 // 17 Reach, Grasp, and Manipulation: Changes Across the Life Span...502 // Introduction...502 // Role of Reflexes in Development of Reaching Behaviors...502 // Reaching Behaviors: Innate or Learned?...503 // Locating a Target: Eye-Head Coordination...505 // Shifting Gaze...505 // Tracking Object Movements...505 // Development of Visual Pathways for Reaching...506 // Eye-Head-Hand Coordination Development...507 // Reach and Grasp...507 // Motor Components...507 // Sensory Components...510 // Grasp Development...512 // When Do Children Start Using Anticipatory Control in Grasping // and Lifting Objects?...514 // Adaptation of Grip Forces...515 // Learning to Grasp Moving Objects (Catching)...515 // Cognitive Components: Emergence of Object Exploration...515 // The Role of Experience in the Development of Eye-Hand Coordination...516 // Reaction-Time Reaching Tasks... 517 // Fitts’

Law...518 // Changes in Older Adults...518 // Reaching: Changes with Age...519 // Grasping: Changes with Age...522 // Reach-Grasp Adaptation: Changes with Age...524 // Compensation and Reversibility of Decrements in Reaching Performance...525 // A Case Study Approach to Understanding Age-Related Changes in Reach, // Grasp and Manipulation...526 // xii Contents // Summary...527 // Answers to Lab Activity Assignments...527 // 18 Abnormal Reach, Grasp, and Manipulation...529 // Introduction...529 // Target-Location Problems...529 // Visual Deficits and Object Localization...530 // Problems with Eye-Head-Hand Coordination...531 // Problems with Reach and Grasp...532 // Impairments of Reach...532 // Problems with Grasp...541 // Problems with In-Hand Manipulation...547 // Problems with Release...547 // Apraxia...548 // A Case Study Approach to Understanding Upper-Extremity Disorders...549 // Jean J.: Reach-and-Grasp Problems Following Cerebrovascular Accident...549 // Mike M.: Reach-and-Grasp Problems in Parkinson’s Disease...550 // John C: Reach-and-Grasp Problems Following Cerebellar Pathology...550 // Thomas: Reach and Grasp Problems in Cerebral Palsy...550 // Summary...551 // 19 Clinical Management of the Patient with Reach, Grasp, // and Manipulation Disorders...552 // Introduction...552 // A Task-Oriented Approach to Examination...553 // Evaluating Participation (Performance)...553 // Standardized Measures of Functional Activities (Capacity)...557 // Examination at the Strategy

Level...561 // Examination at the Impairment Level...567 // Transition to Treatment...569 // Long-Term Goals...569 // Short-Term Goals...571 // Patient-Identified Goals...571 // Task-Oriented Apporach to Intervention...571 // Intervention at the Impairment Level...571 // Intervention at Strategy Level...577 // Intervention at the Functional Level...585 // Summary...592 // Answer to the Lab Activities...594 // References...595 // Index...631