CONTENTS // Preface to the second edition ix // Preface to the first edition xi // Preface to the second printing xiv // 1 LANGUAGE UNIVERSALS i // I. I APPROACHES TO LANGUAGE UNIVERSALS I // 1.1.1 Two major approaches I // 1.1.2 The data base 5 // 1.1.3 Degrees of abstractness 12 // 1.2 CLASSIFICATION OF LANGUAGE UNIVERSALS 15 // 1.2.1 Formal and substantive universals 15 // 1.2.2 Implicational and non-implicational universals 17 // 1.2.3 Absolute universals and tendencies 19 // 1.3 EXPLANATIONS FOR LANGUAGE UNIVERSALS 23 // 1.3.1 Common genetic origin 23 // 1.3.2 External explanations 24 // 1.4 SUMMARY 29 // Notes and references 29 // 2 LANGUAGE TYPOLOGY 33 // 2.1 TYPOLOGY AND UNIVERSALS 33 // 2.2 TYPOLOGICAL PARAMETERS 38 // 2.3 MORPHOLOGICAL TYPOLOGY 42 // 2.4 SOME FURTHER TYPOLOGICAL PARAMETERS $2 // Notes and references 54 // CONTENTS // vi // 3 THEORETICAL PREREQUISITES 57 // 3-1 SEMANTIC ROLES 57 // 3-2 PRAGMATIC ROLES 62 // 3-3 GRAMMATICAL RELATIONS 65 // 3-4 MORPHOLOGICAL CASES 70 // 3-5 ILLUSTRATION : ENGLISH AND RUSSIAN // CLAUSE STRUCTURE 74 // Notes and references 84 // 4 WORD ORDER 86 // 4 1 WORD ORDER PARAMETERS 87 // 4*2 CORRELATIONS AMONG WORD ORDER PARAMETERS 92 // 4.2.1 Greenberg’s correlations 92 // 4.2.2 Generalizations of Greenberg’s results 94 // 4.2.3 Critique of the generalizations 99 // 4-3 THE VALUE OF WORD ORDER TYPOLOGY 102 // Notes and references 102 // 5 SUBJECT 104 // 5.1 THE PROBLEM 104 // 5-2 ON DEFINITIONS AND CATEGORIES 106 // 5-3 ERGATIVITY 110
// 5-4 SEMANTIC AND PRAGMATIC FACTORS 116 // Notes and references 123 // 6 CASE MARKING 124 // 6.1 THE DISCRIMINATORY FUNCTION OF CASES 124 // 6.2 NATURAL INFORMATION FLOW IN THE // TRANSITIVE CONSTRUCTION 127 // 6.2.1 Inverse forms 129 // 6.2.2 Differential marking of ? and P 129 // 6.3 SUMMARY 136 // Notes and references 136 // CONTENTS VII // 7 RELATIVE CLAUSES 138 // 7-1 SOME TYPOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF // ENGLISH RELATIVE CLAUSES 138 // 7-2 TYPES OF RELATIVE CLAUSE 142 // 7.2.1 Defining the notion relative clause 142 // 7.2.2 Word order and relative clause types 145 // 7.2.3 The role of the head in the relative clause 147 // 7.2.4 The role of the head in the main clause 153 // 7-3 ACCESSIBILITY TO RELATIVE CLAUSE FORMATION ISS // 731 Simplex sentences ISS // 732 Complex constructions 160 // 7.3-3 The distribution of relative clause types 163 // Notes and references 163 // 8 CAUSATIVE CONSTRUCTIONS 165 // 8.1 PARAMETERS IN THE STUDY OF // CAUSATIVE CONSTRUCTIONS 166 // 8.1.1 Formal parameters 166 // 8.1.2 Semantic parameters 171 // 8.2 VALENCY CHANGES IN MORPHOLOGICAL CAUSATIVES 174 // Notes and references 184 // 9 ANIMACY 185 // 9-1 INTRODUCTION : THE NATURE OF ANIMACY 185 // 9-2 PHENOMENA CONTROLLED BY ANIMACY 188 // 9-3 CONCEPTUAL ANIMACY DISTINCTIONS 194 // 9-4 CONCLUSIONS : THE NATURE OF ANIMACY 197 // Notes and references 200 // IO TYPOLOGICAL AND HISTORICAL // LINGUISTICS 201 // IO.I DIACHRONIC DIMENSIONS IN UNIVERSALS // AND TYPOLOGY 201 // 10.2 AREAL
TYPOLOGY 204 // CONTENTS // viii // 10.3 TYPOLOGY AND RECONSTRUCTION 210 // 10.3.1 Word order typology 211 // 10.3.2 Word order and morpheme order 216 // 10.4 TYPOLOGY AND DIACHRONIC EXPLANATION 219 // Notes and references 225 // ii CONCLUSIONS AND PROSPECTS 227 // Map showing location of languages cited 234 // References 236 // Index of languages 246 // Index of proper names 257 // Index of topics 259