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BK

Fourth edition

Cambridge : Cambridge University Press, 2016

xi, 578 stran : ilustrace, mapy ; 25 cm

ISBN 978-1-107-60222-9 (brožováno)

Terminologický slovník

Obsahuje bibliografii na stranách 482-568 a rejstřík

001451739

Preface to the Fourth Edition page xii // Acknowledgements xiii // Note on names of plants xiv // List of abbreviations xv // 1 Investigating plant variation and evolution 1 // 2 From Ray to Darwin 4 // Ray and the definition of species 4 // The Great Chain of Being 5 // Linnaeus 6 // Buffon and Lamarck 10 // Darwin 11 // Tests of specific difference 21 // 3 Early work on biometry 23 // Biometrics and eugenics 23 // Biometrical studies of plants 24 // Commonest occurring variation in an array 25 // Estimates of dispersion of the data 26 // Histograms, frequency diagrams and the // normal distribution curve 27 // Other types of distribution 28 // Comparison of different arrays of data 28 // Complex distributions 29 // Local races 32 // Correlated variation 33 // Problems of biometry 35 // 4 Early work on the basis of individual variation // Phenotype and genotype 38 // Transplant experiments 39 // Mendel’s experiments 41 // Pangenesis 46 // Mendelian ratios in plants 47 // Mendelism and continuous variation 48 // Physical basis of Mendelian inheritance 51 // The development of plant cytology 55 // Chromosome number 56 // Chromosome changes 59 // Non-Mendelian inheritance 59 // Patterns of variation 60 // Phenotypic variation 60 // The extent of phenotypic variability in plants 61 // Developmental variation 62 // Phenotypic plasticity 64 // Some early experiments 64 // Individual variation in plants 66 // 5 Post-Darwinian ideas about evolution 67 // Experimental investigation of evolution 67 // The mutation theory of evolution 70 // The Evolutionary Synthesis 71 // Elements of the New Synthesis 71// Coda 73 // 6 DNA: towards an understanding of heredity and molecular evolution 74 // DNA: its structure and properties 74 // Replication of DNA 75 // Transcription and translation of genetic information 76 // Mutation of DNA 78 // Exchanges of DNA segments 79 //

Gene silencing: epigenetic modification of DNA 79 // The plant cell: adaptive, neutral and junk DNA 81 // DNA in the nucleus 82 // Centromeres 83 // Telomeres 83 // ? chromosomes 83 // The concept of junk DNA revisited 84 // DNA in plant cells: mitochondria and chloroplasts 85 // Evolutionary changes in the chloroplast structure 86 // Genetics of chloroplasts and mitochondria 86 // Arabidopsis thaliana: its role as a model species 86 // Studying developmental processes: the role of model plants 88 // Phylogenetic studies 89 // Common origin to life on Earth 89 // Advances in comparative genomics 90 // Palaeopolyploidy and chromosomal changes 92 // Duplicated genes 92 // Techniques for studying genetic variation 93 // Selecting marker systems to test hypotheses 95 // Concluding remarks 96 // Breeding systems 98 // A. The different breeding systems found in flowering plants 98 // Outbreeding 98 // Molecular studies of self-incompatibility systems 102 // Homomorphic and heteromorphic // incompatibility systems 103 // Late-acting self-incompatibility systems 104 // Self-fertilisation 105 // Apomixis 106 // Agamospermy 107 // Apomictic phenomena 108 // Embryology of apomixis 109 // Apomictic behaviour 111 // Diplospory 111 // Apospory 111 // The role of pollen in the evolution of // apomictic plants 112 // Genetics of apomixis 113 // Molecular nature and origin of apomixis 113 // Some dogmas about seed apomixis 114 // B. Breeding behaviour discovered in studies of wild populations 114 // Consequences of different reproductive modes 114 // Advantages and disadvantages of different breeding systems 116 // Reproductive assurance and the genetic ‘quality’of progeny 118 // Breeding systems in wild populations 119 // Outbreeding combined with vegetative reproduction 119 // Outbreeding in association with vivipary 119 // Outbreeding combined with occasional self-fertilisation 120 //

Outbreeding combined with regular self-fertilisation 121 // Mixed reproduction: selfing and outcrossing in different proportions 122 // Facultative and obligatory apomixis 124 // Environmental control of facultative apomixis 125 // C. Evolution of breeding systems 126 // Some concluding remarks 132 // 8 Intraspecific variation and the ecotype concept ns // Turesson’s pioneer studies and other experiments 135 // Experiments by American botanists 139 // The widespread occurrence of ecotypes 144 // Clines 144 // Factors influencing the variation pattern 147 // The refining of genecological experiments 147 // Sampling populations 148 // Cultivation experiments 151 // The designed experiment 154 // The interpretation of experiments 159 // 9 Pattern and process in plant populations 160 // Variation within and between populations 161 // Selection in populations 161 // Selection in changing populations: r- and K-selection 164 // Fitness 165 // Developments in the investigation of populations 165 // Selection: the study of single factors 166 // Studies of several interacting factors: Lotus and Trifolium 166 // Distribution of cyanogenic variants 168 // The role of herbivory 168 // Small-scale influences on patterns and // process in cyanogenic species 172 // Reciprocal transplant experiments 173 // Experimental evidence for disruptive selection 173 // Comparing ‘young’ and ‘adult’ generations 176 // Co-selection in swards 177 // The speed of microevolutionary change: agricultural experiments 177 // Rapid change in polluted sites 178 // Origin of metal-tolerant populations 181 // Hyperaccumulation 182 // Serpentine ecotypes 183 // Sulphur dioxide tolerance 184 // Ozone tolerance 184 // Evolution in arable areas 185 // Herbicide resistance 186 // Weed evolution 188 // Ecotypic variation in response to seasonal or irregular extreme habitat factors 188 //

Phenotypic modification and genetic differentiation 189 // The use of model plants in the study of microevolution 190 // Detecting the signature of selection from genomic studies 190 // Studies of local adaptation involving // cultivation experiments 191 // Combined studies of crucial life cycle traits 192 // Arabidopsis: experiments on phenotypic plasticity 193 // Adaptive and non-adaptive characters 196 // Concluding remarks 199 // 10 Pattern and process: factors interacting with natural selection 201 // Chance has profound effects 201 // Gene flow: population variability and structure 201 // Gene flow: early ideas 202 // Gene flow: agricultural experiments 203 // Gene flow: historic insights from the // movement of pollen 203 // Gene flow: historic studies of seed dispersal 205 // ‘Neighbourhoods’ in wild populations 206 // Gene flow: studies using molecular tools 207 // Gene flow: insights from the use of // microsatellite markers 208 // Gene flow by pollen movement 210 // Animal-pollinated trees and shrubs 211 // Seed/fruit dispersal 212 // Recent insights into gene flow from the study // of transgenic crop plants 212 // Knowledge of gene flow is critical in plant conservation 214 // Gene flow: future directions of research 215 // 11 Populations: origins and extinctions 216 // Metapopulations 216 // Founding events and bottleneck effects 217 // Designing experiments 218 // Case histories of founder events 218 // Founder effects in weedy and ornamental species 219 // Tracing the origin and spread of new populations 220 // Identification of sources of introduced taxa 220 // Once introduced, some species fail to establish 222 // Development of populations: the lag phase 222 // Changes in populations following introduction 223 // Phenotypic plasticity and developmental adaptability 223 // What factors contribute to the success of new populations? 226 //

Population persistence and stability: clonal growth 228 // Size and longevity of clones: new insights using molecular markers 229 // Implications of clonal growth in populations 229 // Another major factor influencing population persistence: seed banks 232 // Processes involved in the extinction of populations 233 // Demographic stochasticity 233 // Pollen limitation causes an Allee Effect 235 // Effects of fragmentation 236 // Genetics of small populations 237 // Minimum viable populations 239 // Concluding comments 240 // 12 Species and speciation: concepts and models 242 // The morphological species concept 242 // Species definitions: taking into account pattern and process 243 // The Evolutionary Species Concept 243 // Phylogenetic (cladistic) species concept 243 // Ecological species concept 243 // The Biological Species Concept 243 // Origins of species 245 // Gradual (Geographic) Speciation 246 // Abrupt speciation 246 // Polyploidy 246 // 13 Allopatric speciation and hybridisation 250 // Evidence for gradual speciation 251 // Crossing experiment with species of Layia 252 // The interpretation of crossing experiments 252 // Studies of Layia using molecular methods 254 // Phylogenetic studies of the Californian Tarweeds 255 // Speciation genes 255 // Pre-pollination mechanisms 256 // Post-pollination barriers 256 // Cytoplasmic male sterility: its possible role in speciation in plants 257 // Genomic changes involved in speciation 258 // Future prospects for the study of speciation genes and genomic architecture 258 // Allopatric speciation and the taxonomist 259 // Natural hybridisation 260 // Natural hybridisation in the wild: classic studies 260 // The consequences of hybridisation: some theoretical considerations 264 // Empirical studies of reinforcement 266 // The emergence of the concept of introgressive hybridisation 270 //

Introgression: classic approaches championed by Anderson 271 // Genetic investigations of hybridisation 274 // Chemotaxonomy: historic investigations of hybridisation 275 // Critical tests of the hypothesis of introgression 276 // Studies of introgression using molecular tools 276 // Introgression in Louisiana Irises 278 // Asymmetric introgression 279 // Cytoplasmic capture 282 // Chloroplast capture: another route 283 // Transgressive hybridisation 283 // Can it be confirmed that adaptive traits are transferred from one species to another by introgression? 283 // Speciation: where future advances might come 284 // The role of hitchhiking in speciation 284 // Next generation sequencing technologies 285 // Zones of introgression: are they ephemeral or long-standing? 285 // Introgression: a key concept in microevolution 285 // Taxonomic considerations 286 // Introgression: its role in evolution 286 // 14 Abrupt speciation 287 // A. The emergence and testing of key concepts in the study of polypoidy 287 // The concept of polyploidy: early cytogenetic studies 287 // Resynthesis of wild polyploids 288 // The concepts of auto- and allopolyploidy 289 // The concept of genome analysis 291 // Genome analysis: uncertainties about ancestry 292 // Genetic control of chromosome pairing: the implications for genome analysis 294 // Studies of karyotypes 295 // Chemical studies 296 // In situ hybridisation (ISH) 297 // Polytopic multiple origin of polyploids 297 // B. Recent insights into polyploidy from molecular studies 302 // Key questions about polyploidy and its significance 302 // How many species are polyploid? 302 // The delimitation of taxa within polyploid groups 302 // Chromosome counts provide insights into the incidence of polyploidy 303 // Historic estimates of the incidence of polyploidy 303 // Evidence from fossil plants 304 // Genetic evidence 304 //

Polyploids in other plant groups 305 // The origin of new polyploids: the role of somatic events and unreduced gametes 305 // Unreduced gametes: major insights from the studies of molecular genetics 306 // Relative frequency of auto- and allopolyploidy 307 // Unreduced gametes: is polyhaploidy important in plant evolution? 307 // Polyploids: their potential for evolutionary change 307 // Meiosis in polyploids 308 // Evidence for structural changes in polyploids 309 // Gene silencing: epigenetic alterations in gene expression 310 // Transposable elements 311 // Polyploids: the implications of their recurrent formation 311 // Polyploids: cytogenetic changes in the longer term 311 // Becoming established: what ‘hurdles’ do polyploids face? 312 // Characteristics of polyploids as a group 313 // Polyploids: ecological considerations 313 // Polyploidy is often associated with a change in the breeding system 313 // Evidence for hybridisation between diploid and polyploid plants in the wild 316 // Reticulate patterns of variation in some groups 318 // Are polyploids more frequent in particular geographical areas? 318 // Current views on the present-day distribution of polyploids 321 // The implications of ancient polyploidy for studies of geographical distributions 321 // Other modes of abrupt speciation 322 // Changes in chromosome number 322 // Nested chromosome insertion 326 // Plants with diffuse centromeres 326 // Speciation following hybridisation: homoploid speciation 327 // Minority disadvantage 328 // Concluding remarks 329 // 15 The species concept 331 // Species as part of natural classifications 331 // Mental reality of species 332 // Do species have evolutionary reality? 333 // The Biological Species Concept 333 // The views of botanical taxonomists 334 // Different definitions of species 335 //

16 Flowering plant evolution: advances, challenges and prospects // The devising of phylogenetic trees 336 // Classifications 336 // Weighting characters 338 // Numerical taxonomy 340 // The influence of numerical taxonomy 341 // Cladistics 342 // Molecular phylogenetic analysis 344 // Generation and analysis of molecular sequence data 346 // Cladograms 346 // The findings of molecular systematics 349 // Layout of trees 350 // Angiosperm phylogeny 351 // Mapping additional information onto phylogenetic trees 353 // Insights into evolutionary relationships provided by molecular phylogenetic studies 355 // Timescales and timetrees: the role of fossils and molecular clocks 359 // Universal or local clocks? 359 // Origin and age of the Angiosperms 360 // Floral evolution 362 // Molecular genetics of floral evolution 363 // The metaphor of the Tree of Life: its strengths // and weaknesses 366 // How far do phylogenetic trees reveal the course of evolution? 366 // Plant evolution: limitations of the Tree of Life metaphor 370 // Angiosperm evolution: what role for saltational change? 371 // Constraints in evolution 375 // Genome sequencing: prospects for further insights into phylogeny 375 // Classification and the Tree of Life 376 // Traditional taxonomy, cladism and molecular systematics 378 // 17 Historical biogeography 382 // The Deluge and Noah’s Ark 382 // The Deluge and plant distribution 382 // Eighteenth- and nineteenth-century // investigations of plant geography 383 // Long-range dispersal: early investigations 383 // Land bridges: historic ideas 384 // Continental drift 384 // Pangaea and the geographical origin of the // angiosperms 385 // Ancient extinctions 386 // The K-T extinction 387 // The Pleistocene 391 // Advances in plate tectonics on the interpretation of plant distributions 392 // Modern phylogeographical investigations of plant distributions 393 //

Factors considered in modelling 394 // Long-range dispersal: new insights 395 // Single and recurrent long-range dispersal 396 // Evidence for back colonisation 397 // From which source(s) did long-distance migrants originate? 397 // Disjunctions: long-distance dispersal or vicariance? 398 // The investigation of ‘divergence times’ for taxa 399 // Mediterranean island endemics: dating and ancestral area reconstruction 400 // Phylogenetic studies of the opening of a land bridge 400 // Migration: implications of specialisation 400 // Quaternary Ice Ages: plant survival, // migration and extinction 401 // Refugia in different parts of the world 404 // Implications of refuges 404 // Migration from refuges 405 // The refugial hypothesis of Amazonian speciation 407 // Palaeoecology: insights from the study of ancient DNA 407 // Multidisciplinary approaches in biogeography: two case histories 408 // Concluding remarks 409 // 18 // The evolutionary impact of human activities 411 // Humans: as animals practising extreme niche construction 411 // Human impact on the environment 411 // The evolutionary effects of human activities 412 // Assessing human impacts on ecosystems: sources of evidence 412 // From natural ecosystems to cultural landscapes 413 // The extent of human-modified ecosystems 414 // Plants: their different roles on the cultural landscape stage 416 // Interactions between plants 418 // Do human activities present threats to biodiversity? 419 // Human influences: habitat loss and fragmentation 419 // Human influences: introduced organisms 420 // The ecological consequences of introduced species 422 // Human influences: the effects of pollution 422 // Eutrophication 423 // Acid Rain 423 // Human influences: global climate change 424 // The Greenhouse Effect 424 // Direct observation of climate change 425 // Predictions of future climate change 425 //

Climate change: human influences 426 // Climate change sceptics and deniers 426 // Biological effects of climate change: species adapt, move or die 427 // Climate change presents new selection pressures 427 // The footprint of climate change 428 // Forecasting future changes in distribution 430 // Adaptive responses to climate change 431 // Ecosystem changes under climate change 432 // How many species are threatened with extinction? 434 // Assessment of extinction risk by experts using IUCN and other categories 435 // Endangered species: an overview 437 // Concluding remarks 438 // 19 // The taxonomic challenge ahead 439 // What are the prospects of the completion of a catalogue of life? 439 // The renewal of taxonomy 440 // Barcoding: its history and potential in taxonomic investigations 442 // Barcoding: a route to the reinvigoration of taxonomy? 445 // The status of taxonomy in an era dominated by molecular biology 446 // Will Earth’s species all be named before they become extinct? 447 // 20 Conservation: from protection to restoration and beyond 449 // Ex situ conservation 449 // Seed banks 452 // Ex situ conservation: the future 453 // The role of protected areas in countering the threat of extinction 454 // Managing reserves to prevent extinction of species 457 // Restoration ecology 458 // Creative conservation: community translocations 459 // Creative conservation: wildflower mixtures 459 // Plants/seed of native provenance 459 // Manipulating and creating populations in an attempt to prevent extinction 460 // Restocking (augmentation, reinforcement) of existing population(s) 460 // Restorations using clonal plants from various sources 461 // Re-establishment (reinstatement) of an extinct population 461 // Founding population(s) in new areas 462 // Mix or match: inbreeding and outbreeding depression 462 // Founding new populations: seed v. plants 463 //

Restoration projects: issues and prospects 463 // Species restoration projects: what counts as success? 463 // Recommendations for better restorations 463 // Aims and objectives of conservation: looking back and considering the future 465 // Assisted migration 466 // Major dilemmas with past-orientated conservation models 469 // Setting priorities in conservation 470 // Creative conservation: economic and political considerations 471 // Concluding remarks 472 // Glossary 478 // References 482 // Index 569